Pharmaceutical Wastes as Emerging Groundwater Contaminants: A Review of Their Sources, Fate, Health Impacts, and Techniques for Analytical Detection and Treatment

Abstract

Pharmaceutical wastes have become significant contaminants in groundwater, raising concerns about their potential impacts on human health and ecosystems. This review explores the sources, fate, and transport of pharmaceutical compounds in groundwater alongside advancements in analytical methods for their detection and treatment technologies. Key contamination sources include wastewater treatment plants, septic systems, and agricultural runoff, with the fate and transport of these compounds influenced by their physicochemical properties and interactions between hydrological and biogeochemical processes. Recent advancements in techniques like Liquid Chromatography coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS-MS) and Spectroscopic methods have improved the detection and quantification of pharmaceuticals at trace concentrations, though they still present limitations. The presence of pharmaceuticals in groundwater is linked to health risks, including antibiotic resistance, endocrine disruption, and other adverse effects. However, the long-term impacts of chronic low-level exposure remain uncertain. Key pharmaceutical contaminants, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics, antidepressants, and hormone disruptors, are found at concentrations ranging from ng/L to μg/L, which, despite being low, can still pose risks to both human health and aquatic ecosystems. Various treatment methods, including advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and activated carbon adsorption techniques show promise in mitigating pharmaceutical contamination, with ongoing improvements will aid in enhancing their efficiency. This review emphasizes the need for further research into the toxicological impacts of pharmaceutical mixtures, the development of advanced treatment technologies, and the adoption of effective monitoring techniques for comprehensive mitigation.